disadvantages of animal studies in psychology

PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, alerting or responding to medical crises such hypoglycemia or seizures), and individuals with mental health disorders (e.g. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [4]. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. To be sure, each species has its own specializations that enable it to fit into its unique ecological niche; but common ancestry results in structural (e.g., brain) and functional (e.g., memory) processes that are remarkably similar between humans and nonhumans. Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. Part of that approval process requires the scientist to identify whether there might be less invasive ways to do the same thing. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. However, due to large heterogeneity and poor reporting of effect sizes and raw data, a narrative synthesis of findings in comparison to unpublished theses and published articles was pursued instead. Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. Kerri E. Rodriguez, If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. Finally, Rodriguez et al. The main reason why they are inaccurate is because of the huge differences between humans and animals. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. An iterative, multi-stage trajectory for developing animal models and assessing their quality is proposed. This systematic review summarized the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) on standardized outcomes of psychosocial health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. Study designs included both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with only one randomized longitudinal study identified [14]. In addition, null findings were reported on standardized measures of family role 3-, 6-, and 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [15], discrimination and social inclusion 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog [34], and family and social self-concept among mobility dog users compared to a control group [37]. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities. Register for the early bird rate. Specifically, this review sought to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with measures tested for reliability and validity among individuals with physical disabilities. Of 27 studies, 7 (26%) reported outcomes from at least one standardized measure of vitality with a total of five different standardized measures. The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). Alan M. Beck, If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. However, on different measures of social functioning Rodriguez et al. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. In addition, we can better understand fundamental processes because of the precise control enabled by animal research (e.g., living environments, experimental conditions, etc.). The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. After removing duplicate articles in EndNote following a validated protocol [23], articles were screened based on their title and abstract. Dr. An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions. The sub-category of loneliness had 19 comparisons in which only 1/19 (5%) was significant. PLoS ONE 15(12): In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. A total of 30% of comparisons made were positive in which having an assistance dog was associated with improved psychosocial functioning among individuals with disabilities. Ethical Considerations and Advances in the Understanding of Animal Cognition. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that dont benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored [74]. Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. To date, there have been several reviews summarizing the literature on the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on their handlers. Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. Six studies used standardized measures to assess general health and health symptoms, three of which [17, 28, 35] reported null findings on the general health domain of the RAND 36-Item Short Form Health Survey [SF-36; 47]. Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. If it does, then it can be tested on humans with a lower risk of a negative outcome. Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). Guide dogs were only assessed in four studies (all of which were cross-sectional, and one of which was an unpublished thesis [46]). Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . Articles were published from 19942018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time. S1 Table. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. In total, 147 comparisons were made across the 27 studies that examined the effect of having an assistance dog on a standardized scale or sub-scale on a psychosocial outcome: 58 (39%) psychological outcomes, 43 (29%) social outcomes, 34 (23%) quality of life outcomes, and 12 (8%) energy/vitality outcomes. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. Cruelty in Entertainment Disaster Response Companion Animals Dogfighting Dog and Cat Welfare Dog Meat Trade Farm Animals Animal Agriculture and Climate Change Factory Farming Plant-Based Eating Wildlife Fur Human-Wildlife Coexistence Rhino and Elephant Protection Seal Slaughter Shark Finning Trophy Hunting Whaling Wildlife Trade Other Ways We Help The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. Summary of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by reporting section (. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. [32] reported no relationship between the mobility domain and having a service dog or hearing dog. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. In results sections, 15/21 studies with a control or comparison condition (71%) demonstrated that participants in each condition were comparable on demographic variables. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. Studies assessed the effects of mobility (18), hearing (7), guide (4), and medical (2) assistance dog partnerships with an average sample size of N = 83. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. Another early review published by Sachs-Ericsson and colleagues in 2002 [8] summarized 14 quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog or hearing dog placement (omitting guide dogs). For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. Breakthroughs include the development of many antibiotics, insulin therapy for diabetes, modern anesthesia, vaccines for whooping cough and other diseases, the use of lithium in mental health treatments, and the discovery of . Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. Only a single study [16] assessed outcomes from child participants under the age of 18 (an additional study [38] had a minimum inclusion age of 16, but the youngest participant was 19). Research in the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) and assistance dogs is not only rapidly growing but is often disparately published across multidisciplinary journals and outlets. Animal research: Serving a vital role in psychological science. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. [14] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). Grayson D.S., Bliss-Moreau E., Machado C.J., Bennett J., Shen K., Grant K.A., Fair D.A., Amaral, D.G. Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16]. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. However, Guest et al. [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Nine studies assessed self-esteem as a primary outcome, with four studies [14, 32, 36, 46] finding a significant effect of having a guide, hearing, mobility, or medical service dog on self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale [RSES; 53]. To achieve the second aim of the reviewto evaluate the methodological rigor of studieseach study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A (Table 2). In the 1950s research which used animal subjects to investigate early life experiences and the ability for organisms to form attachments contributed significantly to the field of developmental psychology. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. This is the result of a new study led by researchers at the University of Mannheim and the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin Advantages Useful Findings. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. On the other hand, Spence [34] found no improvement to a composite score of psychological health 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Capitanio, J. Advantages and disadvantages of animal models commonly used for | Download Scientific Diagram Advantages and disadvantages of various animal models in biomedical | Download Scientific Diagram Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. While both reviews found mostly positive findings regarding mobility, guide, and hearing dogs effects on their handlers health and wellbeing, social interactions, and activity participation [7, 8], it was concluded that the small number of studies and methodological limitations of these studies preclude any clear conclusions [8]. Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. t, F, or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement . A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. Summary of social outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. [16] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group. Some connect animal testing to racism or sexism, arguing that all living creatures are worthy of respect and that making animals suffer for any reason is morally wrong. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. Finally, in discussion sections, most studies (22/27; 81%) stated at least two limitations of their study. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g.
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